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for an Informed Public, Digital Forensic Research Lab, Graphika, and Stanford Internet Observatory, “The Long Fuse: Misinformation and the 2020 Election,” Stanford Digital Repository: Election Integrity Partnership, March 3, 2021, https://purl.stanford.edu/tr171zs0069.

5 Mishra, “Anti-India Cabal in US State Department Manipulated Online Discourse.”

6 Benz uses this metaphor repeatedly to capture attention from credulous audiences on Twitter (see Mike Benz [@MikeBenzCyber], “Would love to explain the AI censorship death star superweapon to @joerogan,” Twitter, July 1, 2023, 8:35 p.m., Internet Archive, https://web.archive.org/web/20230906192037/https://twitter.com/MikeBenzCyber/status/1675347554895302657), often with accompanying footage of himself discussing the concept. For a summary of one such video, see Melissa Fine, “Elon Musk ‘Picked a Fight with America’ Say Critics, ‘He Has No Idea the DARPA Rattlesnake He Just Stepped On,’” BizPac Review, July 3, 2023, Internet Archive, https://web.archive.org/web/20230711021158/https://www.bizpacreview.com/2023/07/03/elon-musk-picked-a-fight-with-america-say-critics-he-has-no-idea-the-darpa-rattlesnake-he-just-stepped-on-1373855.

7 Stanford’s portion of this $3 million award was $748,437 over five years. For details, see “$2.25 Million in National Science Foundation Funding Will Support Center for an Informed Public’s Rapid-Response Research of Mis-and Disinformation,” University of Washington Center for an Informed Public, August 15, 2021, https://www.cip.uw.edu/2021/08/15/national-science-foundation-uw-cip-misinformation-rapid-response-research.

8 The project was first announced at Jason Foster, “My New Project: Empower Oversight: Because That’s What Whistleblowers Do,” Stubborn Things, July 2, 2021, https://jasonfoster.substack.com/p/my-new-project. In 2022, Mike Benz’s Foundation for Freedom Online website acknowledged Empower Oversight in its footer; see “Protecting Digital Liberties, Educating about Censorship, Promoting Online Freedom,” Foundation for Freedom Online, Internet Archive, https://web.archive.org/web/20220829203730/https://www.foundationforfreedom online.com.

9 Robert Faturechi, “A Partisan Combatant, a Remorseful Blogger: The Senate Staffer Behind the Attack on the Trump-Russia Investigation,” ProPublica, March 28, 2018, https://www.propublica.org/article/jason-foster-the-senate-staffer-behind-the-attack-on-the-trump-russia-investigation.

10 “Mission,” Empower Oversight Whistleblowers & Research, accessed September 23, 2023, Internet Archive, https://web.archive.org/web/20230809021038/https://empowr.us/mission.

11 “Disinfo Dictionary: Benz, Mike,” Tablet, March 27, 2023, https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/news/articles/disinformation-dictionary#benz.

12 Greg Piper, “Stanford Accused of Rebooting CIA Mind-Control Project with ‘News Source Trustworthiness Ratings,’” Just the News, updated August 25, 2023, Internet Archive, https://web.archive.org/web/20230825102917/https://justthenews.com/accountability/watchdogs/stanford-accused-rebooting-cia-mind-control-project-news-source.

13 Jeff Cercone, “Partnership Targeted Election Misinformation, Not Conservatives,” PolitiFact, October 11, 2022, https://www.politifact.com/factchecks/2022/oct/11/instagram-posts/partnership-targeted-election-misinformation-not-c.

14 Benz, “Department of Homeland Censorship.’”

15 See Harry G. Frankfurt, On Bullshit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005). A liar attempts to conceal their deception; a bullshitter simply does not care about the truth.

16 There is an online adage known as Brandolini’s law, or the bullshit asymmetry principle: “The amount of energy needed to refute bullshit is an order of magnitude bigger than that needed to produce it.” See Alberto Brandolini (@ziobrando), “The bullshit asimmetry: the amount of energy needed to refute bullshit is an order of magnitude bigger than to produce it,” Twitter, January 10, 2013, 11:29 p.m., https://twitter.com/ziobrando/status/289635060758507521.

17 “A Statement from the Election Integrity Partnership,” Election Integrity Partnership, October 5, 2022, https://www.eipartnership.net/blog/a-statement-from-the-election-integrity-partnership.

18 John Suler, “The Online Disinhibition Effect,” CyberPsychology & Behavior 7, no. 3 (2004): 321–326, https://doi.org/10.1089/1094931041291295.

19 Jeremy Frimer et al., “Incivility Is Rising Among American Politicians on Twitter,” Social Psychological and Personality Science 14, no. 2 (March 2023): 259–269, https://doi.org/10.1177/19485506221083811.

20 Sandra González-Bailón and Yphtach Lelkes, “Do Social Media Undermine Social Cohesion? A Critical Review,” Social Issues and Policy Review 17, no. 1 (January 2023): 155–180, https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12091.

21 Brandy Zadrozny, “House GOP Candidate Known for QAnon Support Was ‘Correspondent’ for Conspiracy Website,” NBC News, April 14, 2020, https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/georgia-congressional-candidate-s-writings-highlight-qanon-support-n1236724.

22 Paul LeBlanc, “Video Surfaces of Marjorie Taylor Greene Confronting Parkland Shooting Survivor with Baseless Claims,” CNN, updated January 28, 2021, https://www.cnn.com/2021/01/27/politics/marjorie-taylor-greene-david-hogg-video/index.html.

23 Steven W. Webster, Adam N. Glynn, and Matthew P. Motta, “Partisan Schadenfreude and Candidate Cruelty,” Political Psychology, August 23, 2023, https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12922.

24 Yoel Roth, “Trump Attacked Me. Then Musk Did. It Wasn’t an Accident,” New York Times, September 18, 2023, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/18/opinion/trump-elon-musk-twitter.html.

25 Sara Dorn, “Marjorie Taylor Greene Assails Ex-Twitter Execs for Banning Her Account—Accuses One of Endorsing Child Sexualization,” Forbes, February 8, 2023, https://www.forbes.com /sites/saradorn/2023/02/08/marjorie-taylor-greene-assails-ex-twitter-execs-for-banning-her-account-accuses-yoel-roth-of-endorsing-child-sexualization/?sh=47cdc9153848.

26 Russell Muirhead and Nancy L. Rosenblum, A Lot of People Are Saying: The New Conpiracism and the Assault on Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2019), 56.

27 Adrian Blanco and Amy Gardner, “Where Republican Election Deniers Are on the Ballot Near You,” Washington Post, updated November 8, 2022, https://www.washingtonpost.com/elections/interactive/2022/election-deniers-running-for-office-elections-2022.

28 Karen Yourish, Larry Buchanan, and Denise Lu, “The 147 Republicans Who Voted to Overturn Election Results,” New York Times, updated January 7, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/01/07/us/elections/electoral-college-biden-objectors.html.

29 Greta Bedekovics and Ashleigh Maciolek, “Election Deniers Lost Key Races for Federal and State Offices in the 2022 Midterm Elections,” Center for American Progress, November 22, 2022, https://www.americanprogress.org/article/election-deniers-lost-key-races-for-federal-and-state-offices-in-the-2022-midterm-elections.

30 Elizabeth Dwoskin and Jeremy B. Merrill, “Trump’s ‘Big Lie’ Fueled a New Generation of Social Media Influencers,” Washington Post, September 20, 2022, https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/09/20/social-media-influencers-election-fraud.

31 Elizabeth Dwoskin (@lizzadwoskin), “NEW: Been working for months on this data project w/@jeremybmerrill. The ‘big lie’ wasn’t just a plan to overturn the election. It was massive clout-building exercise that spawned a generation of influencers,” Twitter, September 20, 2022, 7:20 a.m., https://twitter.com/lizzadwoskin/status/1572229291496308737?s=20.

32 Jesse Singal, “Teen Fiction Twitter Is Eating Its Young,” Reason, June 2019, https://reason.com/2019/05/05/teen-fiction-twitter-is-eating-its-young; Katy Waldman, “In Y.A., Where Is the Line Between Criticism and Cancel Culture?,” New Yorker, March 21, 2019, https://www.newyorker.com/books/under-review/in-ya-where-is-the-line-between-criticism-and-cancel-culture.

33 Nick Popli, “How M&M’s Became the Latest Flash Point in the Culture Wars,” Time, January 23, 2023, https://time.com/6249551/m-m-candy-mascots-culture-wars.

34 Tyler Kingkade et al., “How an Urban Myth About Litter Boxes in Schools Became a GOP Talking Point,” NBC News, October 14, 2022, https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/misinformation/urban-myth-litter-boxes-schools-became-gop-talking-point-rcna51439.

35 Many, many things attributed to Mark Twain on the internet were not actually said by Mark Twain.

36 Venkatesh Rao, “The Internet of Beefs,” Ribbonfarm, January 16, 2020, https://www.ribbonfarm.com/2020/01/16/the-internet-of-beefs.

37 Petter Törnberg, “How Digital Media Drive Affective Polarization Through Partisan Sorting,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119, no. 42 (October 2022), https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2207159119.

38 University of Amsterdam, “Social Media Polarizes Politics for a Different Reason Than You Might Think,” Phys.org, October 12, 2022, https://phys.org/news/2022-10-social-media-polarizes-politics.html.

39 Victoria A. Parker et al., “The Ties That Blind: Misperceptions of the Opponent Fringe and the Miscalibration of Political Contempt,” PsyArXiv, October 1, 2021, https://doi:10.31234/osf.io/cr23g.

40 Ruby Edlin and Lawrence Norden, “Poll of Election Officials Shows High Turnover amid Safety Threats and Political Interference,” Brennan Center for Justice, April 25, 2023, https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/analysis-opinion/poll-election-officials-shows-high-turnover-amid-safety-threats-and.

41 Jim Hoft, “What’s Up, Ruby?… BREAKING: Crooked Operative Filmed Pulling Out Suitcases of Ballots in Georgia IS IDENTIFIED,” Gateway Pundit, December 3, 2020, Internet Archive, https://web.archive.org/web/20201204030147/https://www.thegatewaypundit.com/2020/12/ruby-breaking-crooked-democrat-filmed-pulling-suitcases-ballots-georgia-identified. Rudy Giuliani, who had served as Trump’s personal lawyer, participated in defaming the women, who were awarded $148